為了美麗的地面: Grounded Theory

為了美麗的地面: Grounded Theory

EUROCALL CMC SIG Event

Computer-Mediated Communication and Language Learning: Research and Practice

University of Padova, Italy, 17-19th April 2008

Computer-mediated communication (CMC) has taken on increasingly diverse forms, from e-mail, chat and online forums to social software (web 2.0) such as blogs, wikis and virtual worlds, from podcasts to desktop audio and video conferencing. These new forms of communication are becoming an integral part of modern life and are also finding their place in the language classroom, offering new modes of communication for engaging learners in authentic language learning experiences. It has been reported that through the use of CMC language learners can develop not only language skills but also intercultural communicative competence, lifelong learning skills and digital literacies, key competences for becoming active participants of the Information Society.
But to what extent does the adoption of CMC in language learning environments promote these competences and in what circumstances? What developments have been made in research into CMC and language learning?

The European Commission has proposed that 2008 be the European Year of Intercultural Dialogue because intercultural dialogue needs to become a lasting and visible priority for the European Union, Europeans need to acquire “the knowledge and aptitudes to enable them to deal with a more open and more complex environment”. By 2010, Europe is supposed to become “the most competitive and the most dynamic knowledge-based economy in the world” though digital illiteracy is still reported to be a persistent feature of Europe’s digital divide.

Within this European context, and in order to promote intercultural dialogue and digital literacy in language learning contexts, the Language Centre of the University of Padova and Eurocall’s Special Interest Group in CMC propose this Eurocall Regional Event for language educators on the theme of CMC and language learning.

This seminar seeks to address some of these issues by bringing together practitioners from European educational contexts:

• to share examples of good practice in the use of CMC for language learning and intercultural learning in schools and universities
• to present methodological approaches to and developments in research on CMC and language learning
• to engage in discussions about applications of CMC in language teaching/learning and raise awareness of the issues involved
• to offer hands-on experience of different types of CMC technologies through practical workshops
• to provide opportunities to network and develop proposals for future research and collaboration

Who is the event aimed at?

The seminar is aimed at language educators working in university and high school contexts, who have some experience of or who are interested in using new technologies for language teaching.

Due to the international nature of the event presentations and workshops will be held in English.

Call for papers

Proposals are invited for papers (30 minutes) on the following subjects:

• Internet-mediated intercultural exchanges
• Case studies of CMC for language teaching at universities
• Case studies of CMC for language teaching in high schools
• Web 2.0 for language teaching
• CMC and language teaching/learning - research results
• Methodological approaches to CMC research

Please send an abstract (about 200 words) and a brief bio to francesca.helm@unipd.it

Important dates:
15 January – abstract submission deadline
10th February – notification of acceptance
28th February – registration deadline

Conference fee: 60 Euros

Further information will be provided shortly on the conference website and on the Eurocall CMC homepage.

下午时候看了一部有关国外华人的生活，特别是一位在纽约唐人街打工10年多的华人说道，人这一辈子就是忙碌，这就是命。深受感触，仔细回想了自己从下到如今的人生历程。小时候是为考上大学，不停的努力学习，早起晚睡。一进入大学，又不停的为生活费而忙碌。临近毕业时，又要马不停蹄找工作。本以为有了一份工作后，可以好好休息一下了。可是日益增长的工作压力，在忙于完成教学任务同时，又要忙于考研，提高自己。结婚生子后，又要忙于为孩子的将来作打算，四处兼职。中国人讲究安居乐业，又要忙于购房的首付。可是打工挣钱的速度远远赶不上那一路飙升的房价。等赚够首付的钱，孩子又要上学了，父母年也变老了，各项开支又要多起来了，还有各项无法预测的开支。估计自己的下半生就是钱的奴隶。正如那位华工所说的，这也许就是命。抑或如一位圣人所说的那样，天降降大任于是人也，必先苦其心志，饿其体肤，空乏其身。不禁又想到一起代课的一位博士所说的话，忙碌使人感到充实。

EUROCALL Research Policy Statement

EUROCALL, CALICO, IALL

Joint Policy Statement arising from a Research Seminar on CALL

30 April to 1 May 1999
University of Essen, Germany

Introduction

Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) is a relatively new and rapidly evolving academic field that explores the role of information and communication technologies in language learning and teaching. It includes a wide range of activities and initiatives in materials development, pedagogical practice, and research. CALL as a field began when the limitations of the computer narrowly limited the pedagogy that could be implemented with it, and consequently some people still believe that CALL refers only to drills and mechanical exercises. Today, however, CALL includes highly interactive and communicative support for listening, speaking, reading and writing, including extensive use of the Internet. Materials development, pedagogy and research have developed in intellectual sophistication to the point where the status of CALL as an academic field of studies requiring special consideration should be seriously considered. CALL is no longer either a straightforward pedagogical application of a new medium, nor simply a practical extrapolation of theoretical work in some other discipline.

CALL is sometimes regarded simply as a sub-section of Computer Assisted Learning (CAL), but because CALL deals specifically with language learning it is both inherently multidisciplinary and academically substantive. It can be said to belong to the field of Applied Language Studies and, within that, is most closely related to Second Language Acquisition (SLA), which is itself a rapidly evolving discipline. CALL and SLA are related to sociolinguistics, pragmatics, discourse analysis, and psycholinguistics. In addition, CALL is related to work in education, computer science, natural language processing, cognitive science and psychology, linguistics, cultural studies, and media/communication studies. It is influenced by, and in turn influences, theory and research in all these related fields.

The aim of this document

This document has been drafted by a group of twenty CALL theorists, researchers, developers and practitioners from Europe and the USA in order: (i) to establish a clearer understanding for departments, institutions, professional associations and decision-making bodies of the range of activities represented in the field, and (ii) to provide an organised and consistent perspective on the rubrics under which these activities should be evaluated. Assessment and academic recognition of work in CALL presents difficulties not only because of the rapid evolution of the field but also because of the emergence of new theoretical and methodological paradigms.

CALL work can be categorised as research, development, and practice. Research may be separate from development, in that a researcher may explore the effects of using technology-based tools or materials developed by others, e.g. formative evaluations, or may focus entirely on theory development. In CALL the progression often begins with pedagogical practice or learner needs driving the development of technology-based materials, techniques, or environments. This development effort may then later lead to research, which in turn may or may not be used to generate theoretical implications. Nonetheless, in establishing criteria for evaluating CALL work for purposes of academic recognition and reward, it is important that the distinctions between these activities be clearly articulated.

Academic standards in CALL

In CALL the term development may refer to the creation of pedagogical materials (including design, programming, and incorporation of actual lesson content), or the development of tools and applications into which others can insert language content. In academic contexts where the development of pedagogical materials is typically not rewarded, CALL development is often portrayed as research especially when it is based on previous research and/or includes formative research, in which the materials are tried out on learners and feedback is sought as part of the developmental process. Conversely, however, some research projects exploring the feasibility or validity of technology use in language learning are labelled as development when funding agencies explicitly proscribe research because they want to support the creation of immediately applicable pedagogical materials. Appropriate evaluation of CALL development work depends crucially on the recognition that not only technical expertise and pedagogical expertise are required – both of a high order – but that in addition this work is a kind of professional activity that is without precedent in the field of language education, and not simply more time-consuming than creating exercises or reading materials. Evaluation of such work must be done by those who can distinguish the levels of expertise required.

When research is mentioned in connection with CALL, the assumption is usually that the term refers to studies of the efficacy of technology use in a language learning task that would otherwise be undertaken without it. Data collection and analysis in CALL research may be qualitative or quantitative, experimental or ethnographic, and is published in CALL journals and those of related fields, which naturally include very respected Web-based journals. Crucially, of course, CALL research also includes developmental and prototypal computing. CALL research is moving into new areas, drawing on theories from related fields and creating its own theoretical and methodological paradigms. It is indeed a sign of maturity that CALL has now standardised its terminology, identified its points of reference, and includes a significant number of sub-branches of activity. The design expertise required is of an entirely different kind than that involved in the development of conventional pedagogical materials.

An example of CALL research that is recognised as academically valid is the use of data collected while students are using technology-based materials to confirm or disprove hypotheses generated by SLA theory, whether sociolinguistic or psycholinguistic. This kind of CALL research can contribute to the development of CALL theory itself, i.e. to the understanding of how technology use actually changes the process of language learning, and is thus a crucial part of the paradigm shift needed to establish CALL as a discipline in its own right. In fact, the process orientation of much current SLA theory and research depends crucially on CALL research.

The evaluation of pedagogical practice, materials development, and research in CALL can be based on assessment mechanisms as objective as those used in other fields, but it requires an understanding of the particular challenges of CALL that is not yet widespread in language departments and academic institutions. Interdisciplinarity and paradigm shifts always make evaluation problematic. This document attempts to set out some of the crucial considerations.

Draft 6.0, 13 October 1999

常用英语单词辨析

abide, adhere, conform, comply

　　这四个研究生入学考试中的高频考词都有“遵守”的意思，但是它们的搭配不同。

　　abide v.后接by表示“遵守，同意”。

　　I will abide by the director' decision.我将遵从主任的决定。

　　adhere v.后接to表示“遵守”。(当然adhere一词的其它意思如“坚持；粘附”也经常被考到。)

　　Car drivers must adhere to the rules of driving.汽车司机必须遵守驾驶规则。

　　conform v.后接to表示“遵守，符合”。

　　All individuals are required to conform to the laws made by their governments.每个人都应该遵守政府制订的法律。

　　comply v.后接with表示“遵守，服从”，用于正式的场合。

　　Our company complies with governmental regulations on paying taxes.我们公司遵守政府有关纳税的规定。

　　abnormal, uncommon, disordered

　　这三个单词都有“反常的”之意，在考研和CET-6当中经常让考生们辨析它们的细微差别。

　　abnormal a.不正常的，反常的(但并非罕见)，指行为或现象(如气候)的异常。

　　His body temperature has been abnormal for 3 days, the highest point reaching 40.5 degree centigrade.他的体温三天来一直都不正常，最高的时候达到40.5摄氏度。(尽管身体发烧不正常，但生活中也时有发生。)

　　uncommon a.罕见的，不平常的，指很少经历或很少见到的状况；特别的，出色的。

　　Hurricanes are uncommon in England.飓风在英国非常罕见。

　　That is uncommon instant coffee; it tastes great!那速溶咖啡质量上乘，味道好极了！

　　disordered a.混乱的，杂乱的；(精神或身体)有病的。

　　We couldn't understand her disordered presentation.我们听不明白她条理不清的陈述。

　　abolish, cancel, eliminate, dispose, erase, exclude, extinguish

　　这一组动词都有“取消，除掉”的意思。

　　abolish v.指对法律、习俗、制度的废除；完全破坏。

　　The government abolished the tax on alcohol.政府取消了酒税。

　　cancel v.对预先安排的某种活动(如旅行、计划、会议等)的取消；删去(字、句)。

　　The meeting has been cancelled because of the flu.会议由于流感而取消了。

　　eliminate v.指消除、淘汰已经存在但是现在不需要的东西。

　　The losing team was eliminated from further competition.失利的那个队被淘汰了，不能参加下一阶段的比赛。

　　The doctor helped him eliminate toxins from the intestine.医生帮助他排出肠中毒素。

　　dispose v.处理，处置；表示“除掉、扔掉”时常与of连用。(这一点需要注意。)

　　After your picnic, please dispose of the litter.野餐后请清除掉垃圾。

　　erase v.除去，擦掉，指有意识地除去字迹、声音等。

　　I erased the music on the tape before recording on the tape again.我在往磁带上录音之前先消掉了上面的音乐。

　　exclude v.排斥；排除，不包括在内，与include互为反义词。

　　The restaurant excludes anyone who is not properly dressed from entering.衣冠不整者不得进入该餐馆。

　　extinguish v.熄灭，扑灭(火)；使沉默，使暗淡。

　　Firefighters extinguished a big fire.消防队员扑灭了大火。

　　[Page:2 ]

　　abstract, digest, outline, summary

　　这一组名词都有“要点，摘要”的意思。

　　abstract n.概要，摘要，尤其指对学术论文或法律论据作的简述。

　　I have read the abstract of his book.我已经读了他的书的概要。

　　digest n. (篇幅较长的)摘要，文摘，它是对原文的浓缩而不是对原文的简单解释，浓缩后仍保持原文的顺序、重点和风格。

　　Reader's Digest《读者文摘》

　　outline n.要点，大纲，概要。

　　She made an outline of ideas she wanted to present in her talk.她把自己要谈的想法列了一个提纲。

　　summary n.总结，摘要，指用寥寥数语概括文章或者讲话的要点，不考虑原文的风格。

　　absurd, ridiculous, silly

　　这一组形容词都有“愚蠢，可笑”的意思。

　　absurd a.荒谬的，可笑的，指因不符合常识、违反真理或不合逻辑而令人发笑。

　　There was an absurd idea that the earth was flat and motionless.过去曾经有一种荒谬的观点认为地球呈扁平状而且静止不动。

　　ridiculous a.荒唐可笑的，指因为愚昧无知而令人发笑并成为笑柄，含有蔑视成分。

　　It is ridiculous to judge a foreign culture only by its food.仅仅根据一个国家的饮食来评价该国家的文化是荒唐可笑的。

　　silly a.愚蠢的，傻的，指由于单纯或者头脑简单而显得愚蠢。

　　a silly little boy傻小子

　　abundant, plentiful

　　这两个形容词都有“充足的”之意。

　　abundant a. (数量)充足的，常用于人、物产、资源、雨量等，含有“过多”之意。

　　Oil is in abundant supply in this country.这个国家石油供应十分充裕。

　　plentiful a.丰富的，充足的，常用于食物、收获、财产等，不能用于时间、空间、思想等方面。

　　Eggs are plentiful at this moment.现在鸡蛋很多。

　　accent, tone, dialect

　　这三个名词意思相近，容易混淆。

　　accent n.口音，指某一地区语言的发音特征；重音。

　　He speaks English with a Spanish accent.他讲英语带有西班牙口音。

　　tone n.语气，音调，指说话人的口气或声音的高低、轻重等。

　　He speaks to his baby in soft tones.他用柔和的语调和他的婴儿说话。

　　dialect n.方言，土语，地方话，指一个地区人们所使用的语言。

　　the Yorkshire dialect约克郡方言

　　the Sichuan dialect四川方言

　　access, assess

　　这两个词为一组“形近易混词”。

　　access n.接近，进入。

　　The people living in these apartments have free access to that swimming pool.住在这些公寓里的人可以免费地进入游泳池。

　　assess v.评估(财产，价值)。

　　I assessed how much it would cost to build a new apartment.我评估了一下建一套新的公寓要多少钱。

　　accommodate, afford, furnish

　　这一组动词都有“提供”的意思。

　　accommodate v.提供住宿、房间；适应，迎合，迁就。

　　This hotel can accommodate up to 500 guests.这家饭店可供500位来宾住宿。

　　The company accommodated the customer's wish and sent the delivery overnight.公司满足了顾客的愿望，连夜将货物发了出去。

　　afford v.负担，支付；当“提供”讲时，多用于指抽象事物的提供。

　　We can't afford that expensive sports car.我们买不起那辆昂贵的跑车。

　　The tall building affords a beautiful view of the ocean.从这幢高楼上可以看到大海的美丽景致。

　　furnish v.指提供生活或某种用途所需要的东西。

　　Reading furnishes the mind only with materials of knowledge, it is thinking that makes what we read ours.阅读虽然为我们的思想提供了各种知识，然而只有思考才能将我们读到的内容变成自己的东西。

　　accomplishment, attainment, achievement

　　这三个名词都有“成就”的意思。

　　accomplishment n.成功，成就；才艺，修养。

　　Climbing that high mountain was an accomplishment for the hikers.对于登山运动员来说，爬上了那座山就是成功。

　　Being able to paint well is just one of her accomplishments.画画得好只是她的许多才能之一。

　　attainment n.指学识和造诣(常用作复数)；达到，到达。

　　a scholar of the highest attainments造诣极高的学者

　　achievement n.可指抽象的“成就”，或具体的“成绩”，与accomplishment是同义词。

　　accuse, charge

　　两个动词都有“控诉，指控”之意，但它们后面所搭配的介词不同。

　　accuse v.指控，控诉，与介词of连用。

　　The police accused him of theft.警察指控他犯有盗窃罪。

　　charge v.可以指因为小错而受的责备，也指因违法而受到控告，与介词with连用。

　　The police charged him with murder.警察指控他犯了谋杀罪。

　　acquire, attain, obtain, gain, earn, achieve, secure

　　这一组动词都有"获得，取得"的意思，在考研和CET-6当中屡次出现它们之间的辨析。

　　acquire v.多指经过努力逐步获得才能、知识、习惯等，也可用于对财物等的获得，该词强调"一经获得就会长期持有"的含义。

　　It is through learning that the individual acquires many habitual ways of reacting to situations.正是通过学习，个人才得以获得应付各种情况的习惯做法。

　　attain v.指经过不懈的努力获得未曾预料到的结果；也可指达到某一目标。

　　The salesperson attained his sales goal for the month.这名销售员完成了当月的销售目标。

　　obtain v.获得，买到，用于正式语体中。

　　He obtained the property with a bank loan.他通过向银行贷款买下了那份房产。

　　gain v.指通过较大努力获得某种利益或好处；亦可指军事上的武力夺取等。

　　An investor gains by buying stocks that go up in value.投资者通过所买股票价格上涨而得利润。

　　earn v.挣得，赢得，指因工作等而得到报酬或待遇。

　　How much do you earn a week?你一星期挣多少钱？

　　achieve v.得到，获得，多指成就、目标、幸福的取得。

　　The movie star achieved success and wealth.这个影星取得了成功和财富。

　　secure v.得到；把……拿到手，含有肯定占有难以得到的东西之意；使安全，保卫；作形容词比较常见，意为"安全的"。

　　A million signatures have been secured.已征集到了100万人的签名。

　　He secured the office before leaving it for the night.他晚上离开前锁好了办公室的门窗。

　　acute, critical, crucial, urgent

　　这一组形容词都有"严重的，重要的"意思。

　　acute a.剧烈的，严重的；急性的(病)。

　　An acute lack of food brought hunger to the Iraqi people.食品严重缺乏，伊拉克人民正在忍饥挨饿。

　　critical a.意为"关键的"，表示处于极度缺乏的状态或事件的转折点，与crucial相似。

　　与crucial的区别在于它对缺乏的或危急的程度有更准确的衡量；还指"批判性的，分析性的"。

　　It is critical that you study hard for the exam or you will fail it.为了考好你必须用功学习，则你会不及格的。

　　crucial a.意为"决定性的，紧要关头的，至关重要的"，最为笼统，适用于上述两种情况。

　　Improved consumer confidence is crucial to an economic recovery.消费者信心的增强对经济的复苏是至关重要的。

　　urgent a.意为"紧迫的，急迫的，紧要的"，它不强调所指的问题是最重要的，仅强调"紧急的"状态。

　　We have an urgent need for help; we are running out of water.我们急需要帮助，我们的水就快要用光了。

　　adjust, regulate, rectify, amend, convert, alter, modify, transform, vary

　　这九个动词都含有"调整、改变"的意思。

　　adjust v.一般指很小的改变或技术性的调整；修理。

　　I adjusted the air conditioner to stay cool.我调节了空调以保持凉爽。

　　regulate v.指根据规定或需要对某物(机器、钟表等)进行调整或调节，使之准确工作或运行；多含有"控制"之意。

　　Lights are used to regulate the traffic.红绿灯被用来管制交通。

　　rectify v.纠正，校正(错误、文章、合同等)。

　　He rectified the mistake in the contract by changing its wording.他通过改变措辞纠正了合同里的错误。

　　amend v. (正式用语)指修改文件、法律、规范等。

　　The politicians amended the law to provide more jobs.政治家们修正了这项法律以提供更多的就业。

　　convert v.改变某事物的形式或用途，还可以指改变信仰尤其是宗教信仰。

　　Britain converted to a decimal currency system in 1971.英国于1971年改用十进制货币体系。

　　He's converted to Catholicism.他已经皈依天主教。

　　alter v.使事物在外观、性质、用途等方面稍作改变。

　　The tailor altered the waistband on my pants because it was too tight.裁缝修改了我的裤腰因为它太紧了。

　　modify v.改变，修改，以使某物更趋完善，还可以用来表示态度、脾气、意见变得温和。

　　He was loud and angry, and his friends told him to modify his behavior.他粗声大气，脾气暴躁；朋友们告诉他要改变自己的举止。

　　transform v.指彻底、深远的改变，这种变化完全改变了外观或特性，使被改变的对象脱胎换骨。

　　Remodeling transformed an old, dark housesintosa cheerful one.重新装修使这所陈旧昏暗的房子变得赏心悦目。

　　vary v.强调没有一定规则、陆续的变化或差异。

　　Air fares vary from one airline to another.航空公司的机票价格各不相同。

　　admit, confess, concede

　　这几个动词都有"承认"的意思。

　　admit v.指由于说服、再三追问而"承认"某一事实或过错。

　　I admit that you have a point.我承认你有理。

　　confess v.供认(罪行、过错等)，含有"坦白、招认"的意思。

　　He confessed his crimes to the judge.他向法官供认了他的罪行。

　　concede v.指曾想隐瞒或不愿意承认某一错误，但由于证据确凿而不得不勉强承认，还可以指"以退为进"的承认。

　　The man who caused the accident finally conceded to the police that he had done it.造成这次交通事故的人最终向警察承认他是肇事人。

　　affiliate, link, attach, append

　　这一组动词都有"附加"的意思。

　　affiliate v.加入，成为……一部分。

　　an affiliated middle school一所附属中学

　　link v.将人或物连接起来。

　　The crowd linked arms to form a barrier.群众臂挽着臂组成人墙。

　　attach v.将某物系在、贴在、附在另一物上。

　　I attached a note to my report with a paper clip.我用别针将一张字条别在报告的后面。

　　append v.增加，附加(与attach的意思比较接近)。

　　The lawyer appended two more pages to the contract.律师在合同后又附加了两页。

　　affirm, assert, allege, claim, announce, proclaim

　　这一组动词都有"声称"的意思。

　　affirm v.坚信不疑地肯定或宣称，是deny的反义词。

　　He affirmed his love for her.他发誓爱她。

　　assert v.指不管事实如何，主观自信地宣称，或者清楚有力地坚持某个情况为事实。

　　She asserted that she was innocent .她宣称自己是无辜的。

　　allege v.在无真凭实据的情况下宣称、断定。

　　The suspect alleged that he had not been in the neighborhood at the time of the crime.嫌疑犯声称案发时他不在现场。

　　claim v.要求，声称，断言。多指根据某种规定提出的要求或主张。

　　They claim that if more people rode bicycles to go to work there would be fewer automobiles in the downtown section of the city.他们生成如果有更多的人骑自行车上班的话，闹市区的汽车就会有所减少。

　　announce v.宣布，宣告。多指首次当众正式宣布某一主张或态度，常常带有预告的意味。

　　The invention of the printing press announced the diffusion of knowledge.印刷术的发明宣告了知识普及时代的来临。

　　proclaim v.宣布；宣告(成立)。指经过深思熟虑后向大众宣布一个明确的决定或判断，尤其指重大事件的宣布，多用于官方场合。

　　The president proclaimed an emergency when the war came.当战争来临的时候总统宣布进入紧急状态。

　　[Page: 2 ]

　　aggravate, reinforce, increase, strengthen, intensify

　　这一组动词都有"加强"的意思。

　　aggravate v.加重(负担、罪行、病情等)，使之恶化。

　　I hurt my foot, then aggravated it by trying to walk too soon.我的脚受伤了，而过早的下地走路又加重了伤情。

　　reinforce v.增援，一般用于军队或警察的行动；(以添加材料等)加固。

　　A police officer saw three thieves robbing a bank and radioed to reinforce him.一位警察看到三个盗贼抢劫银行，用无线电话要求增援。

　　increase v.指数量上的增加。

　　The number of people has been increased.人数增加了。

　　strengthen v.加强，巩固，增强，相当于to become stronger。

　　Exercising every day strengthens the heart.每天锻炼可以提高心脏的功能。

　　Competition, they believe, strengthens the national character rather than corrupt it.人们认为竞争加强了民族性而不是破坏了它。

　　intensify v.使变得更强烈、剧烈，加剧，相当于to become more intense or intensive。

　　intensify colors加深色彩

　　intensify hatred加深仇恨

　　alert, cautious, considerate

　　这一组形容词都表示"小心的，谨慎的"。

　　alert a.警惕的，留神的。

　　The hostess remained standing, alert to every guests' drinking need.女主人一直站在旁边，时刻准备给大家斟酒。

　　cautious a.细心的，谨慎的。

　　He has a cautious attitude about spending money.在花钱的问题上他态度谨慎。

　　considerate a.关心他人的，体贴的。

　　He is always considerate of others; he is kind and sympathetic.他总是很体谅他人，并且慈祥而富有同情心。

　　alive, live, living, lively

　　这一组形容词都跟"活"有关。

　　alive a.活着的，有活力的，常作表语，作定语时必须后置。

　　After the accident, he was barely alive.交通事故后，他奄奄一息。

　　all man alive所有活着的人

　　live a.活的，有活力的，现场直播的。

　　We watched the live broadcast of the opera on TV.我们通过电视观看了这部歌剧的实况。

　　living a.活着的，作定语可前可后，可修饰人也可修饰物。

　　Who is the world's greatest living artist?谁是现在还健在的世界上最伟大的艺术家？

　　living room起居室

　　lively a.活泼的，栩栩如生的。

　　She is a lively young girl, always laughing and doing things.她是个活泼可爱的小姑娘，总是欢声笑语忙个不停。

　　alleviate, diminish, reduce, decrease, decline

　　这一组动词都有"减少，减轻"的意思。

　　alleviate v.在痛苦方面的减轻，缓和

　　The painkiller alleviated the pain.止疼药减缓了疼痛。

　　diminish v.指因为不断消耗，在数量方面缓慢减少，也指在素质或者价值的下降。

　　The supply of oil has diminished because of the war.由于战争石油的供应减少了。

　　reduce v.指人为地使某物在数量或重量方面的减少或降低。

　　He reduced the amount of money they could spend.他缩减了他们的开销。

　　decrease v.指数量上的减少；力量或者强度的减弱。

　　The population decreased a lot last year.去年人口数量急剧下降。

　　decline v. (数目、价格、比率)下降；谢绝，婉言推辞；衰退，衰落。

　　Last year, the crime rate in Chicago has sharply declined.去年芝加哥的犯罪率明显下降。

　　He declined our invitation to dinner.他婉拒了我们请他吃饭的邀请。

　　allocate, separate, detach, divide

　　这一组动词都有"分开"的意思。

　　allocate v.分配，把……拨给。

　　The city government allocated money for schools and the police in this year's budget.市政府在今年的预算中给学校和警察部门分配了资金。

　　separate v.人为地分开，使隔离开。

　　We separated the salad forks from the dinner forks.我们把沙拉叉与餐叉分隔开。

　　detach v.拆开组合的物体；远离，疏远。

　　We need a carpenter to detach this bookshelf from the wall.我们需要一名木匠将书架从墙上拆下来。

　　divide v.指将整体分为若干个部分。

　　The huge corporation dividedsintossmaller companies.这家特大公司分成一些较小的公司。

　　ambiguous, obscure, vague, unclear, dim

　　这一组形容词都有"模糊"的意思。

　　ambiguous a.意义含糊的，有歧义的，指因字、词、句有歧义而使人感到模糊不清、难以理解和把握。

　　His ambiguous directions confused us; we did not know which of the two roads to take.他的模棱两可的指导使我们很迷惑以至于我们不知道该走哪条路了。

　　obscure a.用于表达因光线不足而使人看不清楚。该词的引申意义可以表示语法、文字、记忆等因复杂、深奥、模棱两可而使人看不懂和无法理解。

　　The poetry of Ezra Pound is sometimes difficult to understand because it contains so many obscure references.艾兹拉·庞德的诗有时候难以理解，因为诗歌中含有许多令人费解的典故。

　　vague a.含混的，不清楚的，多用于比喻意义，用来表示因逻辑关系不清、言辞笼统而导致的意义不清楚，该词也可表示轮廓形状的不清楚和模糊。

　　He has some vague ideas about what to do, but nothing specific.他大概知道他要做什么，但没有具体的计划。

　　unclear a.指句意、字迹不清楚，使人难以看懂；不肯定的。

　　Unclear writing is difficult to understand.模糊的字迹使人难以辨认。

　　It is unclear whether the economy will get better.经济是否好转仍不明朗。

　　dim a.光线暗淡的，看不清的；记忆力模糊的；不大可能的。

　　Don't work in dim light.不要在昏暗的光线下工作。

　　His changes of recovery from illness are dim.他康复的可能性十分渺茫。

　　amplify, enlarge, stretch, magnify, reinforce, expand

　　amplify v.扩大，增加，尤其指通过增强电压或电流使声音扩大；补充叙述(故事、事件等)。

　　We must ask you to amplify your statement.我们得请你对你的说法作进一步的说明。

　　enlarge v.扩大，多指具体物品如相片的放大。

　　enlarge photograph放大照片enlarge a house扩建房屋

　　stretch v. (有弹性地)伸展，延伸，并有可能超过限度；伸长、伸出(身体某部位)并绷紧肌肉(尤指在放松后或为了够着某物)。

　　The pullover stretched after I had worn it a few times.这件套头毛衣我穿了几次之后就撑大了。

　　Having finished their morning work, the clerks stood up behind their desks, stretching themselves.完成了早间工作之后，职员们站到桌子后面伸伸懒腰。

　　magnify v.放大，指用透镜或显微镜使物体看上去大一些。

　　His eyeglasses magnify words so he can read them.他借助眼睛把字放大以便能够阅读。

　　reinforce v.增援，加固。

　　expand v.指范围、体积的扩大、增大，也可以指内容或细节的充实。

　　The balloon expanded, then exploded.气球先是膨胀，然后就爆破了。

　　anger, fury, indignation, resentment

　　这一组名词都有"愤怒、生气"的意思。

　　anger n.气愤，生气，是一般用语。

　　After their argument, he expressed his anger by punching the other man in the face.争吵之后，他一拳打在那个人的脸上以发泄怒气。

　　fury n.暴怒，大怒，程度较anger要强。

　　indignation n.义愤，尤其指出于道义上的激愤。

　　general indignation at the sudden steep rise in bus fares公共汽车票价突然猛增激起的公愤

　　resentment n.愤恨，怨恨，不满，是正式用语，尤指由于受侮辱或自尊心受到伤害后而产生的愤慨。

　　There was a feeling of resentment in the office after everyone's pay was lowered.大家的工资降低后，办公室里怨声载道。

　　apparent, evident, manifest, obvious, distinct

　　这一组形容词都有"明显的"之意。

　　apparent a.明显的，显而易见的，尤其指容易观察到或认识到的事物。

　　He is very unhappy, and it is apparent that he wants to leave now.他很不高兴，显然他现在想走了。

　　evident a.明白的，明显的，与apparent基本同意，多用于推理或由事实证明的事物。

　　It is evident that he is guilty; his fingerprints were found at the crime scene.显然他是有罪的，在犯罪现场发现了他的指纹。

　　manifest a.清楚的，明显的，多指根据外部特征或迹象便能看出或了解其意义，常作表语。

　　Her ability is manifest, but she is not attractive.她才能出众，但长相并不动人。

　　obvious a.明显的，显而易见的，含有无可辩白，不需证明之意。

　　It is obvious that that woman has had too much to drink.很显然，那个妇女酒喝的太多了。

　　distinct a.清楚的，明显的；不同的，独特的。修饰性质明显不同的东西。

　　Medical care has made a distinct improvement in his health.治疗已使他的健康有了明显的好转。

　　applaud, clap, commend, praise

　　applaud v.鼓掌，赞扬，指因精湛表演或某种行为得到别人的赞许，大声叫好或热烈鼓掌。

　　The boss applauded my efforts by praising my work.老板表扬了我的工作，对我的努力表示赞许。

　　clap v.拍打，其用法是clap one's hand=applaud,不能说applaud one's hands。

　　clap sb.为某人鼓掌，clap sth.拍打某物

　　commend v.为正式用词，用于对具体功绩或成就表示嘉奖，通常指上级对下级、长辈对晚辈的赞赏。

　　The teacher commended the student for doing well on the exam.老师表扬学生们的考试成绩优异。

　　praise v.为一般用词，用于对某人的优秀品质表示钦佩羡慕；赞颂，赞美。

　　A supervisor praised the employee for her good work.一位主管称赞这位员工的工作做得不错。

　　Survivors of the crash praised God for saving them.坠机事件的幸存者赞颂上帝使他们得救。

　　area, district, region, vicinity, zone

　　这一组名词都有"区域"的意思。

　　area n.泛指面积较大的地区；面积；专业领域。

　　The New York area has high rents.纽约地区房租很高。

　　district n.行政区划的小范围地区。如Xicheng district北京西城区

　　region n.行政区划上更大的地区，如"自治区"；身体部位。

　　The northeast region of the USA includes New York and the six New England states.美国东北部包括纽约和新英格兰地区的那六个州。

　　vicinity n.周围地区，附近地区。

　　The police were alerted that the escaped criminal might be in the vicinity.警察都十分警惕因为逃跑的罪犯就藏在附近地区。

　　zone n.指特定的地方、地带。

　　The city passed a law to create a business zone on some empty land.市政府通过法律，在一些空地上开辟商业区。

　　assembly, conference, congress, rally, seminar, session, summit, symposium

　　这一组名词都表示"会议"的意思。

　　assembly n.集合，集会。

　　The assembly of students takes place in the auditorium.学生们在大礼堂举行集会。

　　conference n. (专门性的)会议，讨论会。

　　The conference on international economic problems met in Geneva.关于世界经济问题的会议在日内瓦召开。

　　congress n.代表大会，(美国的)国会。

　　Congress passes laws that must be obeyed by the people.美国国会通过的法律，人民一定要遵守。

　　rally n. (鼓舞士气的)集会；群众性集会。

　　The football coach called a rally to build up the team's excitement for the next game.足球教练召开了一个动员会，以便鼓舞士气打好下次比赛。

　　seminar n. (大学的)研究班，研讨会。

　　During summer vacations some teachers attend seminars at college.暑假里，一些教师在学院里参加研究班。

　　session n. (一届)会议，回合。

　　the autumn session of Parliament议会的秋季会议

　　summit n.最高级会议，峰会(通常为领导人参加)。

　　Next year, the summit will be held in Vienna.明年将在维也纳举行最高级会谈。

　　symposium n. (学术、科研方面的)座谈会，专题报告会。

　　The symposium on SARS research lasted two days.非典型性肺炎研究的研讨会持续了两天。

　　assessment, estimate, evaluation

　　这一组名词都有"评估"的意思。

　　assessment n.评估，估价，常常表示对于财产、价值的评估。

　　We have a low assessment on our property.我们对我们的资产评估很低。

　　estimate n.估计，强调进行评估得出的结果，常与动词give搭配。

　　The mechanic gave me a rough estimate of two or three hundred dollars for the repairs to my car.机械师给我的汽车修理费的粗略估计是200或300美元。

　　evaluation n. (对于能力，价值、工作业绩的)评价，估价，常带有肯定的、正确的含义。

　　He gave a positive evaluation of our scientific research.他对于我们的科学研究给予了积极的评价。

　　[Page:2 ]

　　associate, ally, combine, unite

　　这一组词都有"联合"的意思。

　　associate v.交往，结交；联系，联想。多指平等友好的合作，后接with，表示与某人交往或合作，后接in表示在某个方面合作。

　　We associate with our neighbors at church.在教堂里，我们同邻居交往。

　　ally v.使结盟，使联姻，多与with搭配。

　　Several political parties allied with each other against higher taxes.几个政治党派联合起来反对提高税收。

　　combine v.联合，化合，混合，多指为了某个目的将不同的人或物混合而成一个整体。

　　The girl combined sugar, butter, and flour to made the dough.小姑娘把糖、黄油和面粉混合到一起做成面团。

　　unite v.联合，合并，团结，尤指不同的事物或人组成统一体，强调结果的一致性。

　　The nation united against its enemy.国民团结一致共同对敌。

　　average, common, general, universal, usual

　　这一组形容词都有"普通"的意思。

　　average a.普通的，一般的，它强调的是一般水准或普通水准；通常在有数字出现的情况下，表示"平均的"。

　　The average runner can run 2 miles in fifteen minutes.跑步者15分钟内平均跑两英里。

　　common a.常见的，普通的，不足为奇的，有时引申为"平凡的"，强调事物的共同性。另外，它还有"公共的，共同的"之意。

　　Car accidents are a common occurrence.交通事故是很普通的事件。

　　general a.普通的，一般的，表示涉及到各方面，强调整体性而非个别和例外，该词的反义词为particular。

　　In general, the economy is doing well now.总的来说，现在的经济形式还不错。

　　universal a.普遍的，比general语气更强，有"全然没有例外"的意思。

　　Poverty is a universal problem all over the world.贫困是世界各地普遍存在的问题。

　　usual a.通常的，惯常的，强调"习惯性的，符合规章制度的"，是个一般用语。

　　award, reward

　　award v.指正式地或官方地颁发，授予，给予；也可以指法庭裁决给予。后面可跟双宾语。

　　The school principal awarded a prize in history to the best student.学校校长将历史奖授予最出色的学生。

　　reward v.酬劳，奖赏，回报，通常指因做了某一件事或提供了某种服务而应得到报酬或酬谢，其后一般以人或人的行为作宾语。后跟with用来说明以何物作为报酬。

　　I will reward to the person who returns my lost dog.我将出50美元，酬谢帮我找回丢失的狗的人。

　　aware, conscious

　　aware a.知道的，意识到的，强调感官对外界事物的意识。

　　He was aware of his mistake.他意识到自己的错误。

　　conscious a.有意识的，意识到的，一般指内心所意识到的。

　　The salesman is conscious of the fact that he must increase sales.销售员意识到他必须增加销售量。

　　base, foundation, ground

　　这一组名词都有"基础"的意思。

　　base n.指具体的有形的基础，也可指物体的底部、基部；基地，总部。

　　They use their apartment in New York as a home base from which they travel frequently.他们把纽约的公寓作为他们频繁出行的大本营。

　　foundation n.本义指建筑物的地基，含有坚实的基础的意思；基金会。

　　The foundation for our house is made of cement.我们房子的地基是水泥打下的。

　　ground n.地面，土地，也指地域，水底，海底。

　　basic, elementary, fundamental

　　basic a.基本的，基础的，既可用于具体事物，也可用于抽象事物。

　　He has a basic understanding of the problem.他对问题有基本的了解。

　　elementary a.初步的，初级的。elementary school小学

　　fundamental a.根本性的，一般只用于抽象的事物；必要的，必须的。

　　Honesty is a fundamental principle in dealing with others.诚实是与别人相处的基本原则。

　　beam, chuckle, giggle, grin, jeer, laugh, roar, sneer

　　这一组都有"笑"的意思，而它们之间的差别也是明显的。

　　beam v.本义指照耀，放光，引申为"微笑"，是正式用语，指面带喜悦或笑容，暗示对他人的友好或内心的满足。

　　She beamed with happiness.她高兴得眉开眼笑。

　　chuckle v. (书面语)吃吃的笑，抿嘴笑，轻声笑，多指因得意或领会到某事中的趣味而暗自发笑。

　　She does not laugh out loud; she only chuckles.她没有笑出声来，只是抿嘴而笑。

　　giggle v.咯咯地笑，痴笑，傻笑，多指女人和孩子由于紧张、被逗乐、尴尬时所发出的笑声。

　　The schoolgirls giggled when the famous football player walkedsintostheir classroom.当这个著名的足球运动员走进教室时，女生们都咯咯地笑起来。

　　grin v.露齿而笑，指人因高兴、满足、轻蔑等咧开嘴露齿地笑。

　　He grinned at his mother.他冲他的妈妈咧嘴一笑。

　　jeer v.讥笑，嘲笑，其同义词是mock。

　　The crowd jeered when the boxer was knocked down.当那个拳手被人打倒时，人群开始嘲笑他。

　　laugh v.笑，大笑，用于一般的笑或出声的大笑。

　　roar v.怒吼，咆哮，引申为放声大笑，哄堂大笑。

　　He roared when he heard the joke.听完这个笑话，他哈哈大笑。

　　sneer v.冷笑，嘲笑，指以语言、表情、和声调表示轻蔑或嘲弄。

　　He sneered at the offer and said it was two low.他对报价嗤之以鼻，说它太低了。

　　bewilder, puzzle, confuse, embarrass, perplex

　　这一组词都有"迷惑"的意思。

　　bewilder v.使困惑，使茫然，强调非常困惑，通常表现为心理和智力的紊乱，语气最重。

　　He was fired without warning and is completely bewildered about the reason.他没有得到事先警告就被开除了，完全不明白是什么原因。

　　When the farmers visited the city for the first time, they were bewildered by its complicated traffic system.当这些农夫们第一次到城里的时候，他们对城市复杂的交通系统感到迷惑不解。

　　puzzle v.使迷惑，感到不解，强调不理解或解决不了。

　　Where the sunken treasure is puzzles explorers.沉没宝藏的下落令探险家们大惑不解。

　　confuse v.一般用语，使混乱，使糊涂，强调因混淆而使人产生迷乱。

　　He sent the wrong reports because he confused them with other ones.他发错了报告，因为他把它们同另外一些报告混淆在一起了。

　　embarrass v.使窘迫，使为难，使困惑，有令人不快、难为情和内心混乱的意味。

　　Her boyfriend embarrassed her by teasing her about her new hairstyle in front of others.她的男友在别人面前嘲笑她的新发型，使她感到难堪。

　　perplex v.使杂乱，使疑虑，使不安。

　　The new tax laws perplex me.新税收法律使我很费解。

　　blame, condemn, reproach, scold

　　这一组动词都有"责怪"的意思。

　　blame v.责怪，把……归咎于。

　　You can't blame anyone in case you fail the exam.万一你考试不及格，你不能怪罪任何人。

　　condemn v.谴责，用于比较正式的、严肃的场合。

　　The wife condemned her husband for drinking too much.妻子因丈夫贪杯而责怪他。

　　reproach v. (书面语)责备，表示不满。

　　His teacher reproached him for not doing his homework.老师责备他不做作业。

　　scold v.责骂，训斥。

　　blunder, error, mistake

　　这一组词都表示"错误"。

　　blunder n. (因为无知、疏忽犯下的)大错，愚蠢的错误。

　　I think that I committed a blunder in asking her because she seemed very upset by my question.这位女士由于我的问题感到很难过，我感觉到犯了一个大错。

　　error n.指判断、计算或行为上的错误，也可指智力或道义上的错误。

　　The accident was the result of human error.这事故是人为的错误造成的。

　　mistake n.误会，误解；(粗心、遗忘所导致的)错误。

　　I took your bag instead of mine by mistake.我错拿了你的手提包。

　　brittle, fragile, frail, crisp, invalid

　　这一组形容词都有"弱"的意思。

　　brittle a.易碎的，易损坏的，通常是指坚硬的东西。

　　The bones of elderly people become brittle and easily broken.老年人的骨头变得脆弱，很容易骨折。

　　fragile a.常常修饰使用时必须小心才不会破碎的东西，也引申为体弱的，虚弱的。

　　He 's feeling a bit fragile after last night's party.他参加了昨晚的聚会以后，现在感觉有些虚弱。

　　frail a. (指人)体弱的，虚弱的，也可以指东西易碎的。

　　His mother has grown old and frail.他母亲已经年老体弱。

　　crisp a.指食品的松脆；清新的，爽快的；活跃的，有生气的，干净利落的。

　　crisp biscuit松脆的饼干

　　The student gave a clear, crisp answer to the teacher's question.学生干净利落地回答了老师的问题。

　　invalid a.不正确的，缺乏证据的；无效的，作废的。作名词时，表示病弱者，伤残者，久病者。

　　Your ideas about the first humans are interesting but invalid.你关于最早的人类的观点很有意思，但是缺乏证据。

　　A bad car accident made him an invalid.一次严重的车祸使他变成了残疾。

　　boundary, border, frontier, rim, verge

　　这几个名词都有"边界"的意思。

　　boundary n.边界；界线。多指作为界线的标识物等。

　　The fence marks the boundary between my land and hers.这道栅栏是我的地和她的地的分界线。

　　border n.较宽的边缘，边界，多指两国或两地之间的分界处附近的边缘地区、边界地带；也可以指物体的边缘等。

　　We crossed the Mexican bordersintosthe USA.我们穿过墨西哥边界进入美国境内。

　　frontier n.边界，边境，边疆，指靠近边界(boundary)的区域；也可引申为"未开发的领域"，"(学术的)前沿"等。

　　The American West was still a frontier a century ago.一个世纪以前美国西部还是一片边疆。

　　She is a biochemist who works on the frontiers of biology.她是从事生物学前沿研究的生化学家。

　　rim n.边，边缘，尤指圆形或近似圆形的物体的边缘。

　　verge n. (道路、花坛等长着草的)边缘，引申为"某事即将发生之际"。

　　on the verge of war战争爆发之际

　　brief, concise, curt, succinct

　　这一组形容词都有"简短的"意思。

　　brief a.简明扼要的，简短的，指时间短暂，办事利索，态度明了等；有时含有"虽短但却不失全面"的意味。

　　The manager made a brief statement to open the meeting.经理致了简短的开幕词。

　　concise a. (文字等的)简要、精练，常含有保留主要部分的意思。

　　His letter was concise, omitting everything not pertinent to the job.他的信写得简明扼要，省略掉了所有与该项工作无关的部分。

　　curt a.三言两语的，简短的，常含有"草率"的意思。

　　He asked his boss a question, but got a curt reply , "I have no time for you now!"他问老板一个问题，但是老板草率的说："我没时间搭理你。"

　　succinct a.简明的，简洁的，简练的，尤指用词简练，除含有concise的意思外，还有经过压缩的或简化的意思。

　　succinct summary of the argument论点的概要

　　[Page:2]

　　bush, shrub, jungle

　　这一组词均与树木有关。

　　bush n.矮树丛。

　　shrub n.有木茎的灌木，灌木丛。

　　jungle n.热带稠密的雨林或丛林。

　　certify, rectify, testify, verify

　　这是一组形近易混词。

　　certify v.证明，声称是真的。

　　He certified it was his wife's handwriting.他证明那是他妻子的手迹。

　　rectify v.改正，纠正；整顿。

　　He rectified the mistake in the contract by changing its wording.他通过改变措辞纠正了合同里的错。

　　testify v. (在法庭上)宣誓作证；表明。

　　He is the only person who can testify in this case, because the other witnesses were killed mysteriously.由于其他的证人已经被神秘地杀害，他成为这件案例中唯一可以作证的人。

　　verify v. (用事实)证实或核实。

　　I verified the store's address by calling to check it.我打电话询问，以核实商店的地址。

　　compel, constrain, force, oblige

　　这一组动词都有"强迫"的意思。

　　compel v.强迫，迫使，常表示运用权利、力量迫使对方做某事；有时也表示"别无办法，不得不做"。

　　His illness compelled him to stay in bed.他的病迫使他卧床休息。

　　constrain v.力劝，强迫，与compel意思相近，但更多强调内心情感(如道德、怜悯等)的强迫和限制作用，一般用于正式的场合。

　　As an artist he didn't consider himself constrained by the same rules of social conduct as other people.他认为自己是艺术家，不必象一般人那样要受到社会行为准则的约束。

　　force v.强迫，迫使，暴力威胁的意味较浓，常用于被动语态。

　　The thief forced her to hand over the money.强盗逼迫她把钱交出来。

　　oblige v. (因法律、习俗等)强迫，迫使，常常用于被动。

　　We are obliged to stop the car at a red light.我们遇到红灯时必须停车。

　　complaint, disorder

　　这两个词都有"疾病"的意思。

　　complaint n.疾病(主要指病人去看病时向医生描述的病症，既可以是小病、慢性病，也可以是传染性疾病)；抱怨，埋怨，不满。

　　a heart complaint心脏病

　　disorder n. (精神或肉体的)疾病(着重于身心、机能的失调、不平衡)；骚乱，动乱；混乱，杂乱。

　　a disorder of the digestive system消化系统疾病

　　complement, supplement，append

　　这三个名词都有"补充"的意思。

　　complement n.补充，补充物，主要指补充不足使之完美。

　　Rice makes an excellent complement to a curry dish.有咖喱的菜配米饭最棒。

　　supplement n.增补，补充，补贴，主要指另外补加，增补。

　　One year after we made our report, we had to add a supplement to cover new events.我们在报告完成一年之后，必须增补一个包含新事件的附加部分。

　　append n.附加，添上或补充某事物(尤指文字)。

　　The lawyer appended two more pages to the contract.律师在合同后又附加了两页。

　　component, element, factor, ingredient

　　这一组名词都有"组成成分"的意思。

　　component n.零部件；(某事物的)组成部分；成分。

　　Tires, the engine, the body, and the seats are component of a car.轮胎，引擎，车身以及坐椅都是一辆汽车的零部件。

　　element n.元素；组成部分，方面；某特定类型的人或群体，分子。

　　The elements hydrogen and oxygen combine to form water.氢元素和氧元素构成了水。

　　He belongs to a bad element in this city.他属于这个城市的坏分子。

　　factor n.因素，要素，侧重指原因。

　　Endurance is an important factor in success in sports.耐力是体育比赛成功的一个重要因素。

　　ingredient n.原料，成分，要素。

　　Flour, milk, butter and yeast are some ingredients in bread.面粉、牛奶、黄油和酵母是做面包的一些原料。

　　comprise, compose, consist, constitute, include

　　这一组动词都有"组成，包含"的意思。

　　comprise v.包含，包括，由……组成(整体)；组成，构成。

　　Our company's product line comprises 2,500 different items.我们公司的生产线是由2,500个不同的组成部分构成的。

　　compose v.构成(整体)，组成；由……组成(后接of，常用于被动语态)；创作(作曲、诗歌等)。

　　The committee was composed mainly of teachers and parents.委员会主要由教师和学生家长组成。

　　consist v.组成，构成,由……组成(后接of，常用于主动语态)；(后接in)在于，存在于。

　　The problem consists of two parts.问题由两部分组成。

　　The beauty of the plan consists in its simplicity.这计划的好处就在于简单易行。

　　constitute v.构成，组成(整体)。

　　Crime and illegal drugs constitute the city's major problems.犯罪和非法毒品买卖是这个城市面临的主要问题。

　　include v.包括，包含，把……列入。

　　The conference delegates included representatives from abroad.大会代表中有来自海外的代表。

　　concentrate, focus

　　这两个动词都有"集中"的意思。

　　concentrate v.集中，集中精力(后接on，宾语可以是具体或抽象的东西)；浓缩，压缩。

　　During exams, students concentrate hard on answering the questions.考试期间，同学们集中精力回答问题。

　　focus v.集中(于某事物)；将(注意力等)集中于……(后接on，宾语一般不是具体的东西)。

　　Please focus your minds on the following problem.请集中考虑以下问题。

　　confinement, limitation, restraint

　　这一组名词都有"限制，局限"的意思。

　　confinement n.限制，囚禁(于某地或某种境地)。

　　The prisoner was sentenced to three months' solitary confinement.那犯人被判处单独监禁三个月。

　　limitation n.限制，局限；(能力的)缺点，弱点。

　　That employee has limitations on what work he can do.那个雇员能做的工作有限。

　　restraint n.克制，抑制；约束措施。

　　Even though the mother was very angry, she acted with restraint and didn't yell at her child.即使母亲很生气，她仍克制自己没有向孩子大吼。

　　considerable, considerate

　　这是一对形近易混的形容词。

　　considerable a.相当大的，相当多的；值得考虑的。

　　That family owns a considerable amount of land.那个家族拥有大量的土地。

　　considerate a.考虑周到的，体贴的，后面常跟of结构。

　　He is always considerate of others; he is kind and sympathetic.他总是很体谅别人，他很慈善并且富有同情心。

　　conserve, preserve, reserve

　　这是一组形近易混词，且都有"保存"的意思。

　　conserve v.保存，保藏，保护(强调节约)。

　　In winter, some people conserve energy by lowing the heat at night.冬天，为节约能源有些人在夜里把暖气调小。

　　preserve v.保护；维持；保养；防止(食物)腐败(强调使不受破坏)。

　　The government preserves the rights of the individual person.政府保护个人的权利不受侵犯。

　　reserve v.保留，储备(强调为某一特殊目的)；订(座位)，预定。

　　We are reserving these seats for my parents.我们把这些座位留给我的父母。

　　continual, continuous, constant, incessant

　　这一组形容词都有"不断的，不停的"的意思。

　　continual a.连续不断的；频繁的。表示时断时续的发生。

　　That dog's barking is a continual annoyance.那条狗不停地叫，真是烦死人了。

　　continuous a.不停的，连续不断的，强调中间不停顿。

　　Our homes and offices need a continuous supply of electricity.我们的家庭以及办公室需要不间断的供电。

　　constant a.不断的，经常的，强调始终如一地经常出现。

　　Everything in the universe is in constant motion.宇宙中的万物都在不断地运动。

　　incessant a.不停的，持续不断的，强调令人厌烦地重复出现，中间有可能有停顿。

　　Incessant noise makes me appreciate silence.持续不断的噪声骚扰使我喜欢安静的环境。

　　convert, invert, revert, transform

　　这一组动词都有"转变"的意思。

　　convert v.转变，变换，含有"使某人改变观点"的意思。

　　He wants to convert to Catholicism.他要皈依天主教。

　　invert v.使颠倒，使倒转，使反向。常常表示位置、顺序、方向等的颠倒。

　　The baby inverted the cup and spilled her orange juice.婴儿把杯子打翻，弄洒了里面的橙汁。

　　revert v.归还，恢复原状。指回到原来的状态或情形。

　　John gave his brother a house, and when his brother died, ownership reverted back to John.约翰送给他的哥哥一所房子，当他的哥哥去世后，房子的所有权重新归于约翰。

　　transform v.改变，转变，指形状、颜色、大小、性质等的改变。

　　A little paint will soon transform the old house.刷一点油漆很快就会使这所旧房子大为改观。

　　credible, credulous, plausible

　　这一组形容词都有"可信的"意思。

　　credible a.可信的，可靠的。

　　That the student told the teacher a credible story that she missed classes because she was sick.那个学生跟老师讲了实情，她没来上课是因为她病了。

　　credulous a.轻信的，易于相信的。

　　She was credulous when she listened to the salesman and bought the car for too much money.她很容易轻信别人，竟然听信那个销售员的话以高价买了那辆车。

　　plausible a.似乎有理的(可信的)。常带有怀疑的意思。

　　Even though it is a plausible explanation, I am not completely convinced.虽然这个解释合理，但仍不可能使我完全相信。

　　decline, refuse, reject, deny

　　这组动词都有"拒绝"的意思。

　　decline v.婉言拒绝，谢绝，相当于refuse politely，主要用于拒绝有关社交活动的邀请或要求帮助的请求，后接名词或动词不定式，主语只能是人。

　　I invited her to join us, but she declined.我邀请她和我们在一起，可是她婉言谢绝了。

　　refuse v.是比较普通的用词，表示"拒绝"，含有非常坚决地、不客气地拒绝的意思。

　　reject v.抛弃，不采纳，主语可以是人或物，后接名词，不能接动词不定式。

　　He asked her to go to the movies three times, and each time she rejected him.他三次约她去看电影，但每一次都被拒绝。

　　deny v.否认，否定，其后可接名词，代词或that从句。

　　The defendant denied the accusations made against him in court.被告在法庭上否认了对他的指控。

　　deduce, induce, reduce

　　这是一组形近易混词。

　　deduce v.推断，推理，演绎。

　　My friend becomes quiet when his girlfriend is angry with him; today he is quiet and so I deduce she is angry.我的朋友在他的女朋友生他的气的时候就会变得沉默，今天他很沉默，所以我推断她生气了。

　　induce v.引诱，劝；引起，导致。

　　We couldn't induce the old lady to travel by air.我们无法劝说那位老太太坐飞机去。

　　reduce v.减轻，减小；降低。

　　He reduced his weight by 20 pounds by eating less and exercising.他通过节食和运动，体重减轻了20磅。

　　delay, postpone

　　这两个词都有"延迟"之意。

　　delay v.延期，延缓，耽搁，常指由于不可避免的障碍等原因而延期。

　　Her late arrival delayed the start of the meeting.她的迟到使会议延迟开始。

　　postpone v.耽搁，暂缓，常指将某事放置一边，等到另一事发生或一定时间后再做。

　　Our meeting for today was postponed until next week.我们今天的会议推迟到下周举行。

　　demonstrate, illustrate

　　这两个词都有"说明"的意思。

　　demonstrate v.多指通过具体动作或物体进行演示、示范、表演、展示等以达到说明或解释的目的。

　　This salesman demonstrated how to cook with a pressure cooker.这个推销员当众演示如何用压力锅煮东西。

　　illustrate v.强调通过举例、列图表或比较等方式来说明道理。

　　The teacher illustrated the history lesson by telling a story about George Washington.那个老师通过乔治·华盛顿的故事来讲述他的历史课。

　　disappear, vanish, fade

　　这一组词都有"消失"的意思。

　　disappear v.消失，不见；灭绝，不复存在。是个一般用语。

　　The little dog was just there, then he disappeared.那条小狗刚才就在那里，然后就不见了。

　　vanish v.消失，不见，指突然间化为乌有，强调非常彻底地、神秘莫测地消失、失踪。

　　The man ransintosthe shop and vanished from sight.那个男子跑到了商店里，然后就消失了。

　　fade v.指衣服的颜色褪色，声音的逐渐消失。

　　The wallpaper has faded from red to pale pink.墙纸从红色褪成了淡粉色。

　　decline, decrease, diminish, reduce

　　这一组动词都有"减少"的意思。

　　decline v. (数量、数字、价格、比率)下降，下落。

　　Last year, the crime rate in Chicago has sharply declined.去年芝加哥的犯罪率明显下降。

　　decrease v.减少，减小，强调逐渐地下降或减少的过程。

　　diminish v. (力量、势力)减弱，减少，强调由于某种原因而减少，这种减少可以造成能够为人们所察觉的后果或损失。

　　The need to take action has diminished.已经没有多少需要采取行动的必要性了。

　　reduce v.是及物动词，指通过人为的方法在数量、规模、范围等方面减少，也可以指在地位、重要性方面降低等级。

　　He reduced his weight by 20 pounds by eating less and exercising.他通过节食和运动，体重减轻了20磅。

　　deviate, distract, divert

　　这三个词都有"转移"的意思。

　　deviate v.背离，偏离。多指脱离正轨或正题等。

　　He deviated from society by becoming a drug addict.他成为一名吸毒者，从而违背了社会道德准则。

　　distract v.使分心，分散(注意力、心理等)。常带有不能专心的意思。

　　Noise distracts him, so he can't study for exams.喧闹声分散了他的注意力，所以他无法进行考试的复习。

　　divert v.转移，使转向，着重改变后的结果，后常接介词from。

　　A loud noise diverted everyone's attention from their work.一声巨响转移了每个人的工作注意力。

　　dip, immerse, submerge

　　这几个词都有"浸，浸入"的意思。

　　dip v.浸，浸染，蘸。多指短时地将某物部分地浸到液体中，有小心翼翼的意思。

　　The artist dipped his brush in the paint.艺术家拿画笔蘸了蘸颜料。

　　immerse v.沉浸，使沉浸于。指全部浸泡在液体中达一段时间，也可指一种氛围。

　　Students immerse themselves in their studies.同学们在专心致志地学习。

　　submerge v.浸没，淹没。多指全部浸没在水下达一定深度。

　　The girl was submerged in the shallow end of the pool.女孩泡在水池的浅水区一端。

　　divide, separate

　　这两个动词都有"分开"的意思。

　　divide v.分开，划分，指把整体分成若干部分，也表示"疏远"的意思，常用结构为"divide…from"。

　　The huge corporation dividedsintossmaller companies.这家大公司分成了一些较小的公司。

　　separate v.作及物动词时，意思是"分隔"，指把原来连接在一起或靠近的东西分隔开来，常用结构为"separate…from"；作不及物动词时，表示"分散，分别"。

　　duty, obligation, responsibility

　　duty n.指道义上的责任，强调自觉性，作可数名词时指本职工作的任务。

　　His duty is to see that the business runs well.他的职责是保证生意良好运转。

　　obligation n.指合同或法律上规定的"责任，义务"，强调其约束力。

　　Parents have a legal obligation to ensure that their children are provided with efficient education suitable to their age.父母有法律上的义务确保其子女受到适合其年龄的有效教育。

　　responsibility n.职责，强调对后果要负责任的意思。

　　His father is ill, and he has the responsibility of caring for him.他的父亲病了，他有责任照顾他。

　　eject, inject, project

　　这是一组形近易混词。

　　eject v.跳出，喷出，弹射出。

　　The pilot ejected from the falling airplane.飞行员从坠落的飞机中弹射出去。

　　inject v.注射。

　　The nurse injected some medicinesintosthe patient with a needle.护士用注射器给患者打针。

　　project v.伸出，突出；预计，预报；投射，放映。

　　The balcony projects out beyond the wall of the house.阳台从房子的墙壁上突出来。

　　The government projects that the defence budget will increase by 20% .政府预计国防预算将增长百分之二十。

　　eligible, illegible

　　eligible a.享有权利的，具备资格的。

　　He graduated from high school with good grades, so he is eligible to enroll in the state college.他以优异的成绩从中学毕业，所以他有资格就读于州立大学。

　　illegible a.很难看懂的，难以辨认的。

　　The writing is illegible; I cannot read what it says.字迹不清楚，我看不清上面写的是什么。

　　eminent, imminent

　　这是一组形近易混词。

　　eminent a.著名的，卓越的，接触的。

　　He is eminent in the field of linguistics.他在语言学领域很有名。

　　imminent a.即将发生的，迫在眉睫的，临近的。

　　The wedding date is imminent, so we must send invitations.婚礼迫近，所以我们必须发放请柬了。

　　emotion, feeling, passion, sensation, sentiment

　　这一组名词都有"感情"的意思。

　　emotion n.情感，感情，指喜怒哀乐等较激动的情绪，表示某物引起的激动。

　　He felt mixed emotions when he thought of her.当他想起她时便产生一种复杂的感情。

　　feeling n.指一般的情绪、感觉，它一般不反映感情的本质和强度。

　　passion n.激情，热情，欲望，极度的仇恨，指强烈的爱好、愤怒或情欲。

　　He spoke with passion about the love of freedom.他满腔热情地谈论着对自由的热爱。

　　sensation n.指人体感官受到外部刺激时产生的感觉，知觉。

　　When she watched the film, she had the sensation that she was in a moving car.她看电影时，感觉自己正坐在一辆开动的汽车上。

　　sentiment n.思想感情，情绪，感情色彩，指由于某种思想唤起的感情，强调主观作用，有时候也带有理智成分。

　　When our grandmother died, we remembered her life with strong sentiment.当祖母逝世时，我们深深地怀念她的一生。

　　encourage, excite, inspire, motivate, stimulate

　　这一组动词都有"鼓励、刺激"的意思。

　　encourage v.鼓励，促进，含有"使增强勇气或给予希望"的意味。

　　He encouraged his son to go to good college.他鼓励他的儿子上名牌大学。

　　excite v.指使人感到激动、兴奋；煽动，鼓动。

　　The band played louder and excited the audience.乐队演奏得更响亮了，使观众兴奋起来。

　　inspire v.鼓舞，激发，影响，常常带有"启迪，启发"的意思。

　　My mother inspires us with stories of her difficult childhood.我的妈妈给我们讲童年时的艰苦生活以激励我们。

　　motivate v.激发，促动，强调激起动机去做某事。

　　A desire to go to medical school motivates her to study hard everyday.她希望上医学院，这成了她每天努力学习的动力。

　　stimulate v.刺激，激发，促进，强调刺激反应的结果。

　　Cold air stimulates me.冷空气刺激我振作起来。

　　equal, equivalent, identical

　　这一组形容词都有"相同的，相等的"的意思。

　　equal a. (数字、数量、权力、价值)相等的；(指人)胜任的。

　　Those two tables are of equal length.这两张桌子一样长。

　　It is a big responsibility to take on, so I hope he 's equal to the task.要担负的责任很大，我希望他能够胜任这项任务。

　　equivalent a.相等的，相同的，与equal基本可以互换使用。

　　The two computers are equivalent in speed.这两台计算机在运算速度上是相同的。

　　identical a.同一的，完全相同的。

　　The boys are identical twins.这两个男孩子是一模一样的双胞胎。

　　equipment, facility, instrument

　　equipment n.指生产、研究所需要的设备、装置，如各种机器和器材，是不可数名词。

　　a factory with modern equipment具有现代化设备的工厂

　　facility n.指较大的设施、设备，尤指公用的、为大众带来便利的设备。

　　The facility at that club includes tennis courts and a swimming pool.那家俱乐部的体育设施包括网球场地和一个游泳池。

　　instrument n.乐器，仪器，为某个用途而使用的工具。

　　As a flexible actor, he can perform, sing, dance and play several kinds of musical instruments.作为一个多才多艺的演员，他既可以表演，又会唱歌跳舞，还能够演奏不同种类的乐器。

　　essential, indispensable, necessary

　　essential a.表示属于某事物的要素或特征是"主要的，核心的，本质的，必不可少的"。

　　The essential point is we must do what the contract says.核心的一点是我们必须按照合同的规定去做。

　　indispensable a.强调客观上是必不可少的，否则就无法维持生命或做不成某一件事。

　　Warm clothing is indispensable in cold weather.在寒冷的天气里，厚衣服是必不可少的。

　　necessary a.是一般用语，强调从主观上看是必须的，不可避免的。

　　exceed, surpass, transcend

　　这一组动词都有"超过"的意思。

　　exceed v.多于，大于，超过，多指数量或允许的限度。

　　Sales of the new product exceeded our estimates.新产品的销售超出了我们的预计。

　　surpass v.优于或超过某人(某物)。

　　The runner surpassed his old record by 10 seconds.跑步运动员比他过去的记录提高了10秒。

　　transcend v.超出或超越，一般指超越经验、常识、普通能力等，强调难以为大众理解。

　　The nature of God transcends of human comprehension.上帝的本质难以为人们所理解。

　　faint, feeble, fragile, weak

　　faint a.虚弱的，眩晕的，指人在特定场合感觉到的虚弱，通常不是天生体质上的虚弱而是由于某种原因造成的暂时的情况。

　　The summer sun was so strong that she felt faint.夏天的阳光太强烈了，她感觉到眩晕。

　　feeble a.虚弱的，无力的，常用来形容人的声音或行为。

　　The elderly lady has become feeble and unable to care herself.这个老太太已经很虚弱了，无法照顾她自己。

　　fragile a.脆弱的，易碎的，指物体容易打碎，或人体质虚弱、容易受伤害。

　　That dish is fragile, so be careful.那个盘子容易碎，所以千万小心。

　　weak a.这组词中应用范围最广的一个，既可以指身体虚弱的，无力的，也可引申为在力量、权力、技能、影响等方面有欠缺或软弱。

　　The patient is losing blood and becoming weak.病人在失血，身体开始虚弱下去。

　　feasible, practicable, practical, pragmatic

　　feasible a.可行的，行得通的，用来表示实施后可以成功的。

　　Your work plan is feasible, so we can build the bridge immediately.你的工作计划是可行的，所以我们可以马上修建那座桥。

　　practicable a.能实施的，可行的，只表示一种可能性，但是实施后的效果不一定理想。

　　Their marriage was so bad that divorce seemed the only practicable solution.他们的婚姻是如此的糟糕以至于离婚似乎是唯一可行的解决办法。

　　practical a.实践的，实用的，实际的，指未经过实践检验的事物，如计划、项目等。

　　She felt that most of what she learned in the course was of no practical use.她感到在课上学到的大部分知识都没有实际用途。

　　pragmatic a.讲究实际的，实用的，务实的，强调用常识解决实际问题，不追求不切实际的目标。

　　He would like to be a doctor, but he has a pragmatic attitude and realizes that he cannot afford medical school.他想成为一名医生，但是他很实际，知道自己上不起医学院。

　　gaze, gape, glance, glare, glimpse, peer, peep, stare

　　这一组动词都含有"看"的意思。

　　gaze v.凝视，注视，指由于好奇、感叹、长时间目不转睛地看。

　　She gazed at her beautiful new diamond ring.她凝视着自己的这颗美丽崭新的钻戒。

　　gape v. (张着嘴、瞪大眼睛)呆看，强调一种吃惊的状态。

　　The children gaped at the big elephant in the zoo.在动物园，孩子们张大了嘴巴呆呆地看着大象。

　　glance v. (粗略地、随便地)一瞥，看一眼。

　　He glanced over the letter he had just received.他把刚收到的那封信粗略地看了一遍。

　　glare v.怒目而视，强调怀有敌意或在气愤的情绪下看；眩目地照射。

　　The woman glared at the man after he shouted rudely at her.那男人粗暴地冲她大声喊叫，她也怒目而视。

　　glimpse v.与glance意思相近，短促地看一眼，一瞥。

　　peer v.指眯起眼睛仔细看，尤指看不清楚的情况下；费力地看，凝视。

　　Being somewhat short-sighted, she has the habit of peering at people.因为有点近视，她有眯着眼睛看人的习惯。

　　peep v.窥视，偷看。

　　The mother peepedsintosthe bedroom to see if her child was asleep.母亲偷偷向卧室看了一下，看她的孩子是否睡着了。

　　stare v.凝视，盯着，指由于好奇、惊讶、赞叹等原因而瞪大眼睛长时间地、直接地注视，常常含有粗鲁无礼的意思。

　　I told my son to stop staring at that fat woman; it wasn't nice.我告诉儿子不要盯着那个胖女人，那样看人不礼貌。

　　historical, historic

　　这两个形容词都和"历史"有关系。

　　historical a.历史上的，有关历史的，史学方面的，以历史为基础的。

　　The French Revolution was of freat historical importance.法国革命具有重要的历史意义。

　　historic a.历史上著名的，重要的。

　　a historic meeting between two leaders两个领袖间的历史性会晤

　　hospitality, hostility

　　这是一组形近易混词。

　　hospitality n.热情招待，殷勤好客。

　　We enjoyed the hospitality of friends at their country home.朋友们在乡下的居所热情地招待了我们，使我们过得很愉快。

　　hostility n.来自与形容词hostile(不友善的，敌对的)，敌意，对抗。

　　You can feel the hostility coming from that man.你可以感觉到那个人的敌意。

　　hypercritical, hypocritical

　　hypercritical a.吹毛求疵的，批评苛刻的。

　　He is so hypercritical that he corrects every mistake his students made.他很苛刻，对于学生的每个错误都要纠正。

　　hypocritical a.虚伪的，伪善的。

　　hypocritical behaviour伪善的行为

　　　ignore, neglect, omit, overlook

　　这一组动词都有"忽略"的意思。

　　ignore v.忽视，不理睬，指有意识地拒绝。

　　She saw him coming but she ignored him.她看见他走过来，但是装作没看见。

　　neglect v.忽视，忽略，疏忽，指无意识地忽视或忘记。

　　He neglected to make repairs in his house.他忘记了修理房子。

　　omit v.遗漏，忽略，忘记，指由于疏忽而忘记，也可以表示因不利或不好而被忽略等。

　　She omitted several steps in the experiment and it failed.她在实验中遗漏了几个步骤，结果实验失败了。

　　overlook v.忽略，疏漏，指有意识地遗漏，也可以指无意识地忽略。

　　The mother overlooked her little boy's bad behavior.那位母亲忽视了她的小儿子的不良行为。

　　imaginable, imaginary, imaginative

　　imaginable a.可想象的，往往作后置定语，所修饰的名词前常加all，every，only或形容词的最高级。

　　In her painting, she has used every color imaginable.在她的绘画中，她用了所以可以想象的到的色彩。

　　imaginary a.虚构的，想象中的。

　　The child has an imaginary friend.那个孩子有个假想中的朋友。

　　imaginative a.富于想象力的。

　　an imaginative writer富于想象力的作家

　　imitate, intimate, intimidate

　　这是一组形近易混词。

　　imitate v.模仿，仿效；复制，仿造。

　　The boy imitates his father's way of talking.那个男孩模仿他父亲说话的样子。

　　intimate a.亲密的；温馨的，舒适的。

　　We have had an intimate friendship since we were young.我们自年轻时代起就建立了亲密的友谊。

　　intimidate v.恐吓，威胁。

　　An older boy intimidated the little children when he took their lunch money.一个年龄大一点的男孩恐吓那些小孩子，并且抢走了他们的午饭钱。

　　imperial, imperious

　　imperial a.帝国的，帝王的；帝王般的，威严的；英制的(非公制的度量衡制，如磅，加仑，品脱等)。

　　the imperial guards帝国卫士

　　imperious a.傲慢的，专横的。

　　The strict father showed an imperious attitude toward his children.那个严厉父亲对孩子的态度很专横。

　　imply, infer

　　imply v. (从言语或态度中)暗示，暗指(某种事情)。

　　The Secretary of the Treasury implied that interest rates would go down.财政大臣暗示利率将下降。

　　infer v. (根据已知事实)推断，推理。

　　I infer from your smile that you are happy.从你的笑容可以看出你很高兴。

　　industrial, industrious

　　这是一组形近易混词。

　　industrial a.工业的，产业的，来自于名词industry。

　　Industrial production is up this year; but agriculture is weak.今年的工业产值上升了，但是农业依然薄弱。

　　industrious a.勤奋的，忙碌的。

　　She started her own business and is now very industrious.她自己开了一家公司，因此很忙碌。

　　initial, original, primitive

　　initial a.开始的，最初的，强调处于事物的起始阶段，也可以指位于开头地方的。

　　My initial good opinion of him changed with time.时间长了我对他最初的好印象改变了。

　　original a.最初的，最早的；原版的，原物的。指按顺序是首位的，在此前不再有更为原始的同类的东西；也指原件的，原物的，非仿造的东西。

　　This is the original piano on which the composer created some of his greatest works.就是在这架钢琴上，这位作曲家创作出了他的一些伟大的作品。

　　primitive a.原始的，上古的，早期的，指处于人类生命或事物发展的早期阶段，也可以指自然的或简朴的。

　　Primitive tribes live in the Amazon River basin.原始部落居住在亚马逊河盆地。

　　interfere, intervene, interrupt, disturb

　　这几个词都有"干扰"的意思。

　　interfere v.干涉，妨碍。常指干涉或妨碍他人(的事)，着重指有影响，当"干涉"讲时，后多接in，当"妨碍，打扰"时后多接with。

　　It's unwise to interfere between husband and wife.干涉别人夫妇间的事是不明智的

　　intervene v.干涉，干预，较为正式，常指带有行动的干预；此外，还有"调停"的意思。

　　Would you intervene if you saw a parent hit a child?要是你看到家长打孩子你会干预吗？

　　interrupt v.打扰，打断，阻碍。常有"使……停止(中断)"的意思。

　　His speech was constantly interrupted by applause.他的讲话频频被掌声所打断。

　　disturb v.打扰，妨碍。常指失去了正常的状态或导致困难产生。

　　Bad dreams disturbed her sleep.噩梦妨碍她的睡眠。

　　invaluable, valueless

　　invaluable a.无价的，非常宝贵的，相当于priceless。

　　Your help in moving the big refrigerator was invaluable.你帮忙搬那个大冰箱，你的帮助是可贵的。

　　valueless a.没有价值的，相当于worthless。

　　That bracelet is a cheap, valueless piece of jewelry.那个手镯是一件便宜的、不值钱的首饰。

　　jealous, envious

　　jealous a.妒忌的，暗含有憎恶与不好的感情。

　　He gets jealous when other man talks to his girlfriend.当别的男人和他的女朋友说话时间]，他会很嫉妒。

　　envious a.羡慕的,强调攀比心理所造成的羡慕。

　　He is envious of my new car and wants one like it.他很羡慕我的新车，也想要一辆同样的。

　　judicial, judicious

　　这是一组形近易混词。

　　judicial a.司法的，法律的，法庭的。

　　The judicial system settles arguments between people.司法系统解决人与人之间的争端。

　　judicious a.果断的，明智的，是个正式用语。

　　He made a judicious decision to save money for his old age.他做了一个明智的决定，要为他的晚年攒钱。

　　minor, inferior, secondary, subordinate

　　这一组形容词都有"次等"的意思。

　　minor a较少的，较小的，较次要的，常含有轻微的但并非不重要的意思。

　　We agreed on everything in the contract, even minor points.我们对合同中的一切问题，甚至是细枝末节都达成了一致。

　　inferior a.次等的，较劣的，差的，当"下级"讲时，强调职位的高低；当"次等"讲时，指素质、质量等的低劣。

　　Most wine from Switzerland is inferior to wine from France.产于瑞士的葡萄酒多数要比法国的差。

　　secondary a.第二等的，次要的，强调在重要性或顺序上处于第二位。

　　My job is of secondary importance to my health.我的工作比起身体来说不那么重要。

　　subordinate a.次要的，从属的，下级的，强调主次地位或支配和隶属的关系。

　　He was always friendly to his subordinate officers.她对下级官员一向和蔼可亲。

　　opt, apt

　　这是一对形近易混词。

　　opt v.选择，抉择，后接for。

　　She opted for a winter vacation, instead of one in summer.她选择了在冬天休假而不是夏天。

　　apt a.易于……的，(后接to)；恰当的，贴切的。

　　She is apt to make mistakes if you pressure her too much.如果你给她施加的压力过大，她就很容易出错。

　　rational, reasonable

　　rational a.理性的，区别于无理性；理智的，区别于感情用事的。

　　The rational thing to do was to take the sick man to a doctor.理智的做法是送病人去看医生。

　　reasonable a.有道理的，公平合理的，或指人讲道理的。

　　That man works very hard, so it is reasonable for him to ask for more money.那个人工作努力，所以他要求加薪是合情合理的。

　　refrain, restrain, constrain

　　refrain v.抑制，禁止，强调抑制一种冲动，是正式用语，为不及物动词，后接介词from。

　　Students refrain from smoking in the classroom.学生们克制住不在教师抽烟。

　　restrain v.抑制，约束，指通过管束阻止某事发生，是及物动词，其习惯用法是restrain sb. (sth.) from doing。

　　She restrains her dog by walking him on a leash.溜狗时，她牵着狗来限制它的活动。

　　constrain v.强迫，力劝，是及物动词。

　　A law constrains the government from spending more money than it takes in.法律限制政府开支大于收入。

　　respectable, respectful, respective

　　这是一组形近易混词。

　　respectable a.值得尊敬的，有好名声的。

　　They are respectable people who are liked and trusted in their town.他们在家乡是受人们敬爱和信任的人。

　　respectful a.尊敬他人的，恭敬的。

　　Students and teachers should have a respectful attitude toward each other.师生应该相互彬彬有礼。

　　respective a.单个的，分别的。

　　revolve, evolve, involve

　　revolve v.旋转，转动。

　　The room began to revolve , then he fainted.屋子开始旋转，然后他就昏倒了。

　　evolve v.发展，演变。

　　Agriculture evolved slowly over thousands of years.几千年来，农业发展得很缓慢。

　　involve v.需要，包含；使卷入，牵涉。

　　Getting a driver's licence involves learning how to drive, studying the rules of the road, and taking a test.要得到驾驶执照需要学习开车，学习交通规则，还要经过考试。

　　sanction, sanitation

　　sanction n.认可，准许，批准。

　　I need my parents' sanction to stay out late.我晚回家需要得到父母的批准。

　　sanitation n.公共卫生，环境卫生，卫生设备。

　　Strict sanitation is used in businesses such as barber shops and restaurants.在理发店和餐馆等营业场所执行严格的公共卫生制度。

　　scenery, scene, view, landscape

　　这一组名词都有"景色"的意思。

　　scenery n.风景，景色，舞台布景，强调从美的角度看，某个国家或地区的总体外貌。

　　Each year, we spend our vacation in the mountains and enjoy the scenery.我们每年到山区渡假，并欣赏那里的风景。

　　scene n.指从远处看到的某一具体景色、景象，也可以指人物的活动场面；(犯罪的)地点，现场。

　　They stood gazing the happy scene of children playing in the park.他们站在那里，注视着孩子们在公园里玩耍的场景。

　　view n.指从远处或窗户看到的视野范围内的风景；观点，看法。

　　Our house has a view of the park.我们的房子可以看到公园的景色。

　　landscape n. (自然的)风景，景色；风景画。

　　The landscape seen from the mountains is green and beautiful.站在群山之巅看到的是一片美丽的绿色。

　　sensible, sensitive, sentimental, sensational

　　这是一组形近易混词。

　　sensible a.有知觉的，可感知的；明智的。

　　The patient was speechless but still sensible.病人虽然不能说话但仍然有知觉。

　　sensitive a.敏感的，灵敏的。

　　This film is sensitive to light.这种胶片对光很敏感。

　　sentimental a.多愁善感的，感伤的。

　　The novel has scenes full of love and loss; it is so sentimental!小说有多处场景充满爱情的悲欢离合，真是感伤啊！

　　sensational a.耸人听闻的，令人激动的。

　　I read a sensational story about a ten-year-old mother.我听到一则耸人听闻的故事：十岁女孩做妈妈。

　　technological, technical

　　这是一组形近易混词。

　　technological a.技术上的。

　　a major technological breakthrough主要技术性突破

　　technical a.技术的，工艺(学)的；专门的，深奥的。

　　The banker made some technical points about the economy in his speech.银行家在他的关于经济的演说中提出了几个很专业的论点。

　　transaction, transition, transmission, transformation, transfer

　　这是一组在考研和CET-6中经常出现的形近易混词。

　　transaction n.交易行为，处理。

　　Transactions of shares on the stock exchange were up today.今天证券交易所的股票成交额上升了。

　　transition n. (从一种情况到另一种的)过渡，更替。

　　The transition from high school to college can be difficult for students.对于学生来说，从中学到大学的过渡会是困难的。

　　transmission n.传播(比如疾病)；广播。

　　The transmission of germs can occur by contact, breathing, and eating.细菌通过接触、呼吸和饮食传播。

　　transformation n. (外观或性质的)改变，改观，转变。

　　His character seems to have undergone a complete transformation since his marrige.他结婚之后性格判若两人。

　　transfer n.转移，转让；(工作的)调动；(旅途中的)换乘，改变路线。

　　The club's goalkeeper isn't happy here, and has asked a transfer.这个足球俱乐部的守门员在此过得不愉快，已经要求转会到其他俱乐部。

加菲猫语录 中英混合版

加菲猫语录 中英混合版

　 I hate mondays. -- Garfield

　　我恨星期一。 -- 加菲

　　Never send a man to do a cat's job. -- Garfield

　　决不要让人去做猫的工作。 -- 加菲

　　Money is not everything. There's Mastercard & Visa.

　　钞票不是万能的,有时还需要信用卡。

　　One should love animals. They are so tasty.

　　每个人都应该热爱动物,因为它们很好吃。

　　Save water. Shower with your girlfriend.

　　要节约用水,尽量和女友一起洗澡。

　　Love the neighbor. But don't get caught.

　　要用心去爱你的邻居,不过不要让她的老公知道。

　　Behind every successful man, there is a woman. And behind every unsuccessful man, there are two.

　　每个成功男人的背后,都有一个女人。每个不成功男人的背后, 都有两个。

　　Every man should marry. After all, happiness is not the only thing in life.

　　再快乐的单身汉迟早也会结婚,幸福不是永久的嘛。

　　The wise never marry, And when they marry they become otherwise.

　　聪明人都是未婚的,结婚的人很难再聪明起来。

　　Success is a relative term. It brings so many relatives.

　　成功是一个相关名词,他会给你带来很多不相关的亲戚(联系)。

　　Never put off the work till tomorrow what you can put off today.

　　不要等明天交不上差再找借口, 今天就要找好。

　　Love is photogenic. It needs darkness to develop.

　　爱情就象照片,需要大量的暗房时间来培养。

　　Children in backseats cause accidents. Accidents in backseats cause children.

　　后排座位上的小孩会生出意外, 后排座位上的意外会生出小孩。

　　"Your future depends on your dreams." So go to sleep.

　　"现在的梦想决定着你的将来"，所以还是再睡一会吧。

　There should be a better way to start a day than waking up every morning.

　　应该有更好的方式开始新一天,而不是千篇一律的在每个上午都醒来。

　　"Hard work never killed anybody." But why take the risk?

　　努力工作不会导致死亡!不过我不会用自己去证明。

　　"Work fascinates me." I can look at it for hours!

　　工作好有意思耶!尤其是看着别人工作。

　　God made relatives; Thank God we can choose our friends.

　　神决定了谁是你的亲戚,幸运的是在选择朋友方面他给了你留了馀地。

　　When two's company, three's the result!

　　两个人的状态是不稳定的,三个人才是!

　　A dress is like a barbed fence. It protects the premises without restricting the view.

　　服饰就象铁丝网,它阻止你冒然行动但并不妨碍你尽情的观看。

　　The more you learn, the more you know, The more you know, the more you forget.

　　The more you forget, the less you know. So why bother to learn.

　　学的越多,知道的越多, 知道的越多,忘记的越多, 忘记的越多,知道的越少, 为什么学来着

Good Language Learners' Strategies

strategies of good language learners

Subject:	strategies of good language learners
List-id:

After mentioning language learning strategies and styles in one of my
posts, I came across the two lists below in emails from Piruz
Siavoshi, originally posted on [ Forums_TESOLTeachers @
yahoogroups.com ] and reposted here with permission:

------------------------
List I
------------------------

Ten  Language Learning Strategies of Good Language Learners (GLLs)

(i) Planning strategy I (cognitive): a personal learning style or
positive learning strategies.Good learners have sufficient self-
knowledge to know what style they should adopt to be successful.

(ii) Planning strategy II (affective): an active approach to the
learning task. Good learners are not passive but take an active
independent role in learning.

(iii) Empathic strategy: a tolerant and outgoing approach to the
target language and empathy with its speakers. Integrative motivation
is crucial, as is lack of inhibition about learning a new language.

(iv) Formal strategy: technical know-how about how to tackle a
language. Good learners are aware of the form of language and
consciously try to get to know the second language.

(v) Experimental strategy: strategies of experimentation and planning
with the object of developing the new language into an ordered
system, and revising this system progressively. The learner has to
make guesses about the second language systematically and be prepared
to change them.

(vi) Semantic strategy: constantly searching for meaning. Good
learners look for meaning in what they hear.

(vii) Practice strategy: willingness to practice. Good learners seize
every opportunity for practice.

(viii) Communication strategy: willingness to use the language in
real communication. Good learnes seek out occasions to use the
language in real-life situations.

(ix) Monitoring strategy: self-monitoring and critical sensitivity to
language use. Good learners check their output continuously and learn
from their mistakes.

(x) Internalization strategy: developing the second language more and
more as a separate reference system and learning to think in it. Good
learners deliberately cut themselves off from their first language.

[taken from David Stern's list, published in 1975]
(Source: Encyclopedic Dictionary of Applied Linguistics: A Handbook
for Language Teaching , edited by Keith Johnson and Helen Johnson ,
p. 141)

------------------------
List II
------------------------

Language Learning Strategies of Good Language Learners (GLLs)

(1) GLLs find an appropriate style of learning.

(2) GLLs involve themselves in the language learning process.

(3) GLLs develop an awareness of language as both system and
communication.

(4) GLLs pay constant attention to expanding their language knowledge.

(5) GLLs develop the L2 as a separate system.

(6) GLLs take into account the demands that L2 learning imposes.

[taken from a research study carried out at Ontario Institute for
Studies in Education]
(Source: Encyclopedic Dictionary of Applied Linguistics: A Handbook
for Language Teaching, Edited by Keith Johnson and Helen Johnson, pp.
141-42)

-------------------------------

I think it's worth talking about this with students.  I'm considering
selecting from the two lists, and then asking students for specific
examples of things that might fit into the different strategies. 
With any luck, sharing ideas in class will help give people more
ideas about effective ways to learn.